North America Books

While reading Tony Horwitz's recent book, "A Voyage Long and Strange: Rediscovering the New World", about his travels through the Americas to rediscover the early explorers and colonists that preceded Jamestown and Plymouth, I became fascinated with those who came to America a full 100 years before Jamestown, particularly Hernando De Soto's 4 year plunge into the wilderness of America with his 600 man army in 1539. In spite of failures by previous Spanish explorers, including one army that lost all but 4 men, De Soto marches throughout the entire southeast from Florida, as far north as Tennessee and North Carolina to as far west as northeast Texas in a vain search for gold and other precious metals. De Soto's journey is fascinating in that he marches through the wilderness and unknown with an unusual measure of confidence while encountering an amazing society of Indian tribes totally unlike what American's perceive of the Indian culture based on their knowledge of American Indians post Jamestown. These tribes had concentrated villages with advanced agricultural development, a networked culture with a central chief, an upper class and they utilized great mounds for the base of the homes of their chiefs and to a lesser degree, their other important tribal members. Based on eye witness accounts left in chronicles and secondary sources, Hudson, tells the story of De Soto's travels and encounters with the Indians that is even more fascinating by Hudson's ability, aided by archeology, to trace a pretty accurate mapping of De Soto's travels. The cruelty inflicted by De Soto and his followers seems counter productive particularly as they are frequently at war with the various tribes they encounter as they in turn depend on the Indians supplies for survival. Thus 220 years before Sherman's march, De Soto also lived off the land creating even greater devastation in his wake. What is very interesting is the detail about the Indians encountered, the names of the towns, biographies on the various chiefs, the detail of their lifestyle and the intriguing explanations of the built up mounds that are still present throughout southeast America. The initial part of the book provides a good history of the early Spanish explorations before de Soto, the closing chapters explains what may have happened to these advanced Indian cultures that were in apparent decline before de Soto and virtually melted away before the tribes known today became prevalent like the Cherokees, the Creeks, Chickasaws etc. The final section covers the great debate and documentation of De Soto's route that was seemingly well documented through the Smithsonian but has more recently been proven to be less accurate by current scholars such as Hudson. If you are only interested in de Soto's travels, this is the meat of the book and whether you have interest in the final sections, this is still one of the best books on De Soto and those lost American tribes who seem related to the Aztecs without the stone necessary to similar stone structures, they in turned built mounds.

Written by Charles Hudson (Franklin Professor of Anthropology, University of Georgia), Knights of Spain, Warriors of the Sun is an in-depth scrutiny of Hernando de Soto's history-making mission of exploration between 1539 and 1542. Taking pains to recreate as precise a geographic answer as possible to the question "Where did De Soto go?", Knights of Spain, Warriors of the Sun retraces De Soto's steps along a map, with supplementary black-and-white photographs and illustrations, recounting De Soto's adventures, perils, and encounters with Native Americans as accurately as possible. Accessible to lay readers and historians alike, Knights of Spain, Warriors of the Sun is a welcome addition to public and college library world history shelves.

I enjoyed this book immensely. As a guy who can take something as dry as "Darwin's Origin of Species" to the beach for the weekend, this is a real page turner. The author does a wonderful job of assembling journal entries along with well documented historical data, into an enjoyable read for the interested lay person. It reminds me somewhat of "Undaunted Courage" by Stephen Ambrose in both its well documented historical accuracy, and attention to readability by the consuming public. I bought this book mainly out of a life long interest in Southeastern Indian culture, and an interest in the terrain of the region before European settlement. The book delivered in spades on both accounts. I am surprised Hollywood has left this story alone. There is enough violence, death, greed, deceit and sex for 5 movies in Desoto's story.

K Cook

I probably first read or heard about de Soto in high school, but until recently he was just a name, one of dozens of Spanish Conquistadors. Then in 2002 while traveling through the Tampa, FL area I came across a National Park commemoration where he first landed on a 4,000 mile 3-year trek through North America. Being there in person my imagination was fired and I've been fascinated by de Soto's journey ever since. I can still smell the salt air, hear the surf and see the Spanish horsemen moving through the shadows of the red mangrove forest. In terms of discovery and epic adventure de Soto equals the story of Lewis and Clark.

This is the single best book available about de Soto, representing 20 years of research and incorporating the latest in archaeological evidence. The route is historically a subject of great controversy, each state has commemorative trails and sites that occasionally change with new scholarship.

The books is a masterpiece incorporating details from many layers to create a highly textured and easily imagined vision of the Spainards and Indians. Hudson is an anthropologist and takes a multi-disiplinary approach which creates a much richer work than a straight historical narrative. Hudson used a "braided narrative", inter-twining the chronological history of events with the latest anthropological evidence - the effect works well.

I found this book to be an excellent read. I could almost hear the clanking of armor and smell the smoke of the Indian village cooking fires. I would recommend this book to anyone who has an interest in early Southeastern Indian culture as-well-as sixtenth century Spanish conquest.

This is a great informational book. I couldn't wait to get it. The only thing lacking that would really be complete would be a pictorial key which I know is impossible for the amount of info . Everyone interested in botany, gardening or the ancient ways needs this book.

This is a big, solid hardcover volume that should be part of every library and university collection's plant and/or Native American reference sections. It is the absolute most thorough and comprehensive book on the subject, with cross-indexing and various ways to find the information you are looking for. I have an M.A. in Anthropology and am Native American myself (Ioway) and this book is an indispensable part of my personal library for both academic and personal use.

It is broken down into several sections, after the preface and acknowledgements.

"Plant Use by Native Americans" (pp. 11-28) gives overviews on the use of plants for drugs (medicines), foods, fibers and dyes, and other uses (hunting and fishing supplies (rods, lines, lures, traps, bows, arrows, spears, etc.), incense and fragrances, fuels, tools, and other uses. Interesting facts emerge such as more tribes used chokecherry as food (163 tribes) than corn (121 tribes), and the plant with the most medicinal uses was the common yarrow (355 uses)! The usages section covers the various sources of information and gives a list of the tribes and their locations.

"Organization of the Information" (pp. 29-32) discusses some of the issues involving the scientific and common plant names, both of which have varied over time and region, as well as ethnobotanical information.

The "Catalog of Plants" is the biggest part of the book (pp. 33-614), and it is arranged alphabetically by genus, with sublistings and specifics under the species. Then under each species, the use/s is/are given, as well as the tribe(s) which use it in those ways. For example, the chokecherry (Prunus virginiana) covers 4 pages in small print (pp. 444-448) of its many uses and the tribes across the U.S. who used it. After each use and tribe, the reference number in the original source is given. One example for chokecherry: "Cheyenne - Antidiarrheal - Unripened berries pulverized and used for diarrhea. (82:42)." Turning to the Bibliography, we find #82 is Jeff Hart's _Montana Plants and Early Peoples_, and checking page 42 of that book (which I also own and recommend) we find the passage there.

After the catalog of plants, there are sections on notes for certain entries, the bibliography of 206 sources, and FOUR useful indexes: two plant usage indexes (index of tribes and index of usages) and two plant name indexes (index of synonyms and index of common names).

The downsides? The print is fairly small, though the decent print quality makes it okay to read for my almost-50 year old eyes. If you are looking to learn how to identify plants, this is NOT the book to buy for that purpose. There are no photos or illustrations in this book. It is not a book that gives specifics on how the plants are mixed, gathered, applied, etc. For example, a plant's effectiveness is often tied to ceremonial and religious aspects that are not covered. There are details that can heal or harm if not absolutely correctly used that are not given. You need to buy field guides and plant keys for the area you are interested in to visually identify plants.

However, if you know the plants you are studying, and wish to have an encyclopedia-type reference to their uses in the various American Indian tribes and nations, you need this book. It's a little spendy because it is so big and is a hardcover, but I haven't regretted buying it and have used it often. It is really a lifetime reference source.

This is a bible of plant uses that goes a LONG way! It doesn't include the dichotomic keys to identify the plant, but it tell you what has been done with them for the past millenia. Highly recommended.

This is not only a great text book for the ethnobotonists, but a great resource for the avid naturalist. In depth information on many species. A must have for any botanist.

This is a superb written reference. However, it has no illustrations, and should be on your shelf as an essential reference to deepen your knowledge of plants for which you have illustrations in other books, or prior first hand knowledge from actually seeing and handling the plants.

"The Revolution Will Not Be Microwaved" by Sandor Katz is created to be used by its readers, not merely consumed. He has clearly laid out as comprehensive and inclusive an agenda as any I have seen, covering industrial food production, dumpster diving, fermenting, foraging, vegetarianism and many other topics. His writing style is humble, clear and flows well -- while he incorporates plenty of information about his and his own experiences, the first person narrative is neatly integrated into the overall message. Each chapter is written as a standalone article and ends with recipes and resources for futher research.

Katz's approach is truly one of conservation and relativity -- he constantly notes that each individual's particular body chemistry, culture and food preferences mean that a diet that works for him (now) may not work for you. He encourages exploration, examination and critical thought.

Sadly, but perhaps not surprisingly, the negative reviews of his books on Amazon are largely from homophobes. While he mentions he's fighting AIDS with diet and medication, and that he lives in a queer community - he's not hamfisted about his sexual orientation or lifestyle. He's clear and up front about it but in no sense does he ever offer judgement about the relative merits of his orientation to the mainstream (nor is the book in anyway about sex). Katz provides details about his life as they are relevant to his experiences and experiments with food -- but he's clearly not out to recruit people to the "Gay Nation" nor to challenge their assumptions on homosexuality.

It's very clear that his mission is to provide a catalyst for his readers (whom he assumes are intelligent, inquisitive folks) to scrutinize their diets and food sources and to arm them with tools for making the best choices based on their own particular situations.

This book provides lots of good info on what's really going on in the food supply, as well as suggestions on getting good food.
It also made me feel better knowing that there are lots of other people who care about the quality of our food.

This is a great book. A really insightful, inspiring, honest and empowering account of somebody who cares about the planet, its people and its food.
I've shown my friends this book as it traveled with me. If I could I'd borrow you mine. Just get it!

Katz has a charming style of writing - frank, yet humble and highly readable. His book "The Revolution Will Not Be Microwaved" is a well-documented compilation of the issues we face with regard to our food, and an account of those individuals and groups who are making positive steps toward curbing an erosion of culture and nutrition. If you only read one book about food and activism, this should be the one - I wish I could afford to give a copy to everyone I know.

Along with "Wild Fermentation" Katz's books are both inspiring non-manifestos, and practical guides to revolutionary living. Katz has quickly become one of my favorite authors and persons.

I loved reading this book and feeling like a radical because of my food choices! Sandor Ellix Katz writes well and has great stories relating to food. This is a great book for those interested in healthy fermented foods and local, seasonal eating.

What Northrup has to say is as interesting as the way he says it. I really loved his style of writing: chatty, wry, ironic, funny, serious--often at the same time.

I am so happy that he won the 1999 native american journalism award for his editorials, which appear in indian country today , news from inidan country and the circle. this book is wonderful and very funny! the poem he writes about John Wayne visitng Vietnam is a masterpiece and shows " the Duke" for what he really is a wimp and a wuz! get this book it's truly a gem!

This book is brutal without being harsh, funny without being lightweight. In a society where everyone (and I do mean everyone) is made to feel guilty for everone else's suffering, this is a breath of fresh air. The problems Northrup faces every day are aired alongside with the joys. For every pain, he offers a happiness.

And he never says you can't understand. He just offers another way to see his life.

Don't buy Ian Frazier's book if you want any kind of accurate picture of today's Indians. Buy this one instead - this is the book to get if you want to begin to understand the complexities of being an Indian. The author speaks to both the initiated and the ignorant. It's both a moving and a fun read.

I picked this book up at random while browsing the "Native American studies" shelf at my local book megastore, and I was quickly drawn in, reading it cover-to-cover in a day. Jim Northrop is an Anishinaabe who lives on the Fond du Lac Reservation in Northern Minnesota, and in this book he writes about reservation life, about Native American political issues, and about his own travels and experiences. One of the great strengths of this book is his honesty as a memoirist. While sticking largely to a humorous matter-of-fact tone, he does not shy away from his grief at his son's suicide attempt or his difficulties returning from war in Vietnam. Another strength is the conversational quality of the writing itself. At first it bugged me, short sentences put together into these meandering run-on paragraphs, but after some reading I began to think more of Italian vocal technique, where the tone continues, rising and falling, with words just dotted on the surface. Eventually it felt like I was just hanging out with the guy, listening to his interesting stories. There are times when the writing falls down, for example during an extended series of sports metaphors during a dicussion of racism, or in the rather forced series of kangaroo references when describing a tribal "kangaroo court". But despite these problems I found the writing compelling and accessible. I'm not qualified to analyze the political arguments he sometimes makes, but his perspective on treaty rights, sports mascots, and gambling will certainly stay with me, informing and broadening my thinking when I next encounter these issues in daily life.

Salmon Without Rivers is a great book of historical facts. It includes many issues like; original salmon locations/populations, "Economy over Environment" issues, and the ineffectiveness of large decision making commissions/agencies. However, with all his good background information the book does not propose any solutions nor investigates today's coastal human communities as they relate to the salmon and/or habitat.

This is a must read book for anyone interested in salmon, rivers and the ecology and history of the Pacific Northwest. Excellent information and a good read.

This is an excellent book that documents the history of salmon, how native Americans viewed them and how modern Americans view them. It focuses on why the pacific northwest is facing a salmon crisis, and our failed attempts to replace what we have lost. Great read for anyone who is concerned about environmental issues.

A thoroughly researched and impassioned presentation including the history of salmon, their decline, why billions of tax dollars in restoration efforts have had paltry returns, and insights into the where we should go from here. A complex issue is examined from many perspectives in an easy to read and compelling book. I highly recommend it to anyone interested in salmon.

As a freelance author writing a piece about salmon for a California-based magazine, this book was indispensible and eye-opening. It is unfailingly sensitive and intelligent about salmon, discussing the fish as fellow creatures in the "natural economy" in which we all live, rather than as mere commodities in the "industrial economy" that has transformed the West in the last 150 years. It is fascinating about the geology that shaped the salmon's environment, the evolutionary history of the fish, the relationship between Native Americans and salmon in the Northwest, and it provides a detailed history of the many factors that have led to the salmon's decline, including habitat destruction, misbegotten hatchery programs, overfishing, dams, mining, grazing, irrigation. If you like to read books about ecology, the creatures of the earth, fish, or the Northwest--you can't go wrong. This is a wonderful book.

This is my second time reading *Spirit Horse* and I have to say I was so not disappointed. The first time I read it, I skimmed over it because I wanted to read the action and adventure and didn't really care much for the details. But this time when I read it, I read everything and it gave me such a clear picture. This is a must read for everyone because it's soo good.

Running Crane was chosen to go along with Wolf Eagle's war party and it is a great honor to be chosen. But the bad thing is that Weasel Rider was also chosen to go along with the party. Running Crane doesn't like Weasel Rider because Weasel Rider always taunt Running Crane about how he wasn't able to ride a horse. (Everytime Running Crane rides a horse, the horse throws him off) Running Crane doesn't like the taunts and he dreams about this great spirit horse which runs very fast and is magnificent.

So Wolf Eagle and the party goes to steal horses and during their journey to travel to the Snake People's land (their enemy), Running Crane has to endure Weasel Rider's taunts. When they arrive, they hear how there's this great horse and if fits the description of Running Crane's great horse. They go to steal horses but something goes wrong and Running Crane is separated from the party. Now it is up to Running Crane to survive the wilderness and to tame that great horse, that was let loose during their mission.

This book is a must read because it holds a lot of knowledge and sense. I think everyone would enjoy this book!!! I know I have enjoyed it.

^_^ ~ Izzy

THE SPIRIT HORSE is a terriffic book about horses. In the story, Running Crane is the only member in the tribe that has not ridden a horse nearly since birth. HE is teased by nearly all the other boys. Though he cannot ride like a pro (yet), the leader of the tribe still picks him out of all the other boys to be one of the children that will acompany the seven warriors on the horse raid. But not only do others laugh at him at camp, his long time enemy is comming as the third boy. Despite all the obsitcals, Running Crane keeps to his dream, to capture the spirit horse no matter what tries to stop him. I love the determination and spirit of RUNNNING CRANE. i have only had this book about a month and i have already read it at least 3 times THIS IS A MUST READ!!!!!!!! ENJOY!!!!

I've read Spirit Horse, and I've given it as a gift more than once. It's one of those stories that creates empathy for the protagonist with each chapter. At the end of each chapter, I could hardly wait to get into the next one to see how our young hero would handle the challenging situations. Ta daa! There's a rewarding--feel good conclusion, but I don't want to give away the end of the story.

Thanks Ned Ackerman!

Barbara Murray Klopp, Children's Author

Ned Ackerman has succeeded in telling a credible tale. The young reader (and adult ones like myself) are pulled in quickly to the challenge ahead of our young protagonist. Spririt Horse is less a horse story and one of how a boy finds courage and grows; the charcters are beliveable, the adventure compelling. It made me want to be a kid again.

Spirit Horse captured and held both my interest and my imagination. I found myself (a 62-year-old white woman living in a large metropolitan area in Michigan in 1999) identifying completely with Running Crane (a young Blackfoot boy living on the plains of what is now Alberta, Canada, or Montana in 1770). Ned Ackerman succeeded brilliantly in telling his story through Running Crane and weaving into his story much of what makes us all human. Spirit Horse is very well-written and moves right along. I read the book straight through, and I know that I will read it again and again. Congratulations to Ned Ackerman on his excellent book. I believe that teachers will consider Spirit Horse a welcome addition to units on multiculturalism and diversity. I believe that the book's appeal extends well beyond the target age group.

This is a really wondeful collection of stories. Two-Rivers takes us from Sapawe, Ontario to the streets of Chicago with stories that are immediate and from the heart. He is a terrific writer who takes us on a great journey of distance, time, and emotion.

I have thoroughly enjoyed this book that brings back fond memories of my own Ojibwe upbringing. Two Rivers writes with a style that is raw and true to his Anishinaabe people. Gchi Migwetch Eddie!

I have known of E. Donald Two-Rivers' work since he started the "Red Path Theatre Company" of Chicago, and am glad he found the time in his busy schedule/career to write a book on short stories based upon the Native American experience(s).

Good Luck E. Donald; and may the you always stay in the Gods' favor for Poety & Muse.

David Andrew Shawanokasic, Menominee

I knew Harold Ball. I wasn't his friend because, as this book explains, for most of his life he drove people away. I wasn't at the party that changed his life, but I know some who were. In fact, I know everybody in this book. Set in the city, on the rez or on the road, these stories read as real to me as the last time I stepped out the door or walked into a truck stop. Each person has his or her own fully realized voice. But what recommends this book most to me are the narrator's voices.

Many writers talk about cultural conflict, the Relocation Act or going back to the reservation, but few express it in more than one voice. Eddie Two-Rivers has the classic short story writer's gift for implication: "It was mid-afternoon-the time of day for sighing. That second when everything is just right and silence slices through time. A slight wind rustled the leaves of a nearby tree and the moment was lost to the past." (p. 54) He evokes nostalgia: "Timber supported the town and everyone in it. I remember it as a green, blue, and brown place: forest, sky, water, and sawdust everywhere. A great place for a kid." (p 221)

Yet he also has that educated awareness that summarizes whole decades in short, sociological parapgraphs: "Bill and Glenda thought of themselves as second-generation urban Indians. Their parents had moved to Chicago's South Side during the 1950s in accordance with the Relocation Act. They met at Red's, a blues bar on Thirty-fifth and Archer Avenue. It was love at first sight. They dated a couple of weeks then decided to live together. Their families disapproved so they moved to the more liberal North Side. Both had been raised in working-class homes. Both regarded their families as being provincial, not with the times." (p. 144)

But Eddie Two-Rivers also understands deeply the power of writing to heal communities and make each of us whole: "Everybody got something they do to make themselves feel better. Writing is my medicine." (p. 83)

You may see it in other writers; you can hear it here.

Ed Two-River's book Survivor's Medicine is an important contribution to the literary world both for Indians and non-Indians. The stories unfold to present a fresh perspective on the human condition in general, and the reality of American Indians specifically. As an educator, the collection of stories explores a spectrum of issues and themes that makes it a dynamic book for teaching in the classroom. Each story broadens the reader's perspective about the reality of American Indians' experience today and challenges the reader to consider and question his or her own perceptions. It grapples with history, politics, and culture in a way that is accessible and poignant to audiences of all ages and backgrounds. Survivor's Medicine can be used with students of all academic abilities. The story "Slow Walker: Hero of the Mud Flats Battle" which tells the story of childhood lessons and lifelong memories fought out in the bush in Canada, can be read to a third grade classroom or in a college literature class. I highly recommend this book for educators at all levels and encourage Native educators across the country to use this book with their students. Mr. Two-Rivers is a wonderful and rare role model for young Indians today. I anxiously await his next book.

There is nothing I can say that would do any justice as to how great this book is. It was everything you could possibly hope for in an ethnographic text. You learn a lot about a culture very different from ours and it is truly just fascinating!

What do people make of places? Basso's opening sentence is a good example of what the Apache call `letting one's mind have room'. As we read through the chapters of the book Basso continues to add layers to the meaning of this opening question. It allows us to reflect on various uses of the word `make'. We make sense of places by interpreting them. We make places intelligible by foregrounding them. We make use of places; as sign posts or land-marks through the use of descriptive naming. We make places or constitute them as sites or repositories of learning; we invest them as placeholders for morality tales or homilies. We make places vital; we invest them with agency, we enchant them, animate them, in the spirit of golems; we take a piece of earth and through magic or metaphysics we bring it alive, giving it a mission and a life of its own.

Wisdom sits in places. The Apache are a good example of virtue ethics. This is a theory of ethics, usually based on Aristotle's Nicomachean Ethics, which argues against an ethical universalism and in favor of a particularism. It foregoes the quest for nomothetic foundations and looks instead to the development of certain skills or character traits. Aristotle created a catalogue of areas of behavior or traits with a continuum of possible dispositions. The virtuous behavior was the means between the two extremes of each continuum. Thus the virtue of bravery was somewhere in the range between cowardice and foolhardiness or irrational voluntarism in the face of impossible odds or a meaningless risk.
Aristotle's concept of phronesis finds an interesting parallel in the Apache moral imagination. Phronesis is a meta-virtue; it is the ability to choose the right action for each particular event; the ability to find the virtuous means between vicious poles. It is the essential skill for particularism which is the theory that the right action, the correct moral choice is particular to each unique event. It is opposed to the universalist proposition that there are sets of moral propositions or codes that we can apply in a covering law model. Universalism holds that when two of our moral codes clash we resolve the dilemma by applying a meta-rule, most commonly a deontological (Kantian) or utilitarian proposition.
The Apache's sense of wisdom is a good example of a pragmatic ethics informed by a set of virtues that are learned and continually developed throughout their life's journey. In the first chapter we note how each speaker brings the homily (the moral lesson associated with a place name) forward, making it their own, fleshing it out. One imagines that each speaker and hearer of place names is expected to silently immerse themselves in each homily; making it real by seeing it happen. The act of giving vision to the oral narrative is a process of developing layers upon layers of particular exemplars of the lesson. It is thus internalized and carried forward for the next use. As one gains wisdom one becomes more proficient at seeing when and where to apply these lessons.
This is similar to the thought of the American pragmatist and logician, C. S. Peirce, who proposed a fallibilism about knowledge, truth, and scientific results. He felt that we were always discovering more and that a full statement of any putative universal law was always deferred. Peirce's original pragmatism differed from what James and Dewey later made of it. For Peirce we expanded our sense of a truth through a process of discovering layers upon layers of particular applications and gradually gaining more of an understanding of the wider truth. But his sense of fallibilism posited rich moral concepts such as justice or duty as essentially contested concepts.

We have maps in our heads. There are other interesting parallels with the ancient Greeks besides virtue ethics. There is a significant body of study regarding Plato's thought on the spoken and written word. Plato argued that reality resides in absolute and eternal forms. Thus the impressions available to our senses are imitations that is but a shadow of these eternal truths; they confuse us and should not be trusted. Worse still are the imitations of imitations; thus his polemics against poetry, art, and the written word. It would be interesting to combine this with the study of texts in the 20th century to look at the Apache's preference for maps in the head. Barthes, Derrida and others all expanded our notion of what can serve as texts and it might be interesting to look at Apache use of places through some of those lenses.
In addition there are interesting parallels with the sophists. Although Plato and Socrates succeeded in creating our contemporary disdain for sophism, recent work in the study of Isocrates and others brings a new appreciation of certain tenets of sophism. The sophists exhibited some similarities to the Apache notions of epistemology. They both saw the elders and ancestors as the source of wisdom and warrants for knowledge to be used for current problems. They both argued that the knowledge of the past resided less in universal laws than in practices of the ancestors; actual responses to past dilemmas that are best accessed through interpretation rather than a rote use of the covering law model or a slavish rehearsal of rigid and dogmatic rituals.
They both thought that knowledge (as justified true belief) was discovered and ultimately ratified and warranted by the voice of the majority; the interpretation that found the most general favor. The sophists proposed that vigorous debate in an open forum of citizens is the most epistemologically sound form of inquiry. Their best speakers would take both sides on various propositions of what the ancestors would have done in the current crisis. The goal was to make the best possible argument for all options and let the citizenry decide.
Both the ancient Greeks and the Apache continued to observe religious rituals but it would also be interesting to compare characteristics of their religious cosmology, the role of the gods, and their associations with natural entities and nature in general.

This book was mediocre at best. Although Keith Basso did provide some insight into why the Apache people cherish their land, I felt that Basso kept on saying the exact same thing in every sentence. I had the point of the entire book by the time I was ten pages into it, and it kept on going, therefore making me lose my concentration on what I was reading.

Anthropologists, language students, and Native American culture afficionados will find this book, and any by Keith Basso, written links into a cultural past which struggles to exist today. As the Western Apache tribes become more modern, the information found in this and other Keith Basso writings, become necessities in the preservation of traditional Apache culture; with the exception of the knowledge of a few hundred very traditional Apaches still living in Arizona.

What do people make of places? This is the central question examined by Keith Basso in his ethno-linguistic study of the relationship between language and landscape among the Apaches of Cibecue, on the Fort Apache Reservation in central Arizona. Basso, a professor of Anthropology at the University of New Mexico, has spent over 30 years conducting field work among the Western Apaches. His publications concerning this group include articles on language, patterns of silence in social interaction, witchcraft beliefs, and ceremonial symbolism, among others. The idea for Wisdom Sits in Places stemmed from a study conducted between 1979 and 1984, in which Basso, with the help of a grant from the National Science Foundation and the guidance of the Apaches, conducted a study of Apache places and place-names; how the Apache refer to their land, the stories behind the place-names, and how these place-names are used in daily conversation by Apache men and women. The result is a stunningly informative account of the use of landscape and language in the social interactions of the Western Apaches.
Basso divides his book into four sections: Quoting the Ancestors, Stalking with Stories, Speaking with Names, and Wisdom Sits in Places. Each chapter's focus is to examine how landscape and language serve distinct purposes in Western Apache society. Basso incorporates the oral history of, and discussions with, local Apaches, as well as his formal training as an ethnographer-linguist, to explain the underlying themes of this book.
First, Basso introduces the reader to the idea of place-names and in the Western Apache construction of history. As conceived by the Apaches, the past is a "well-worn `path' or `trail' which was traveled first by the people's founding ancestors and which subsequent generations of Apaches have traveled ever since" (31). The ancestors gave names to places, based on events that occurred there. Regardless of the physical changes in the landscape that occurred over time, the story of what took place, as well as the place-name, was passed down through generations and serves as a connection between the people and their ancestors.
Second, Basso examines how the language and the land are "manipulated by Apaches to promote compliance with standards for acceptable social behavior and the moral values which support them" (41). The historical tales of place-names are without exception morality tales, intended to influence patterns of social action. Their purpose is to serve as warnings, criticisms, and enlightenment for those who are behaving improperly; not in accordance with the Apache way of life. The telling of a historical tale is "intended as a critical and remedial response" to an individual's having committed one or more social offenses. Apaches contend that if the message is taken to heart, a lasting bond will have been created between that individual and the site at which the events in the tale took place. In short, the land, accompanied with its historical tale, "makes the people live right" (61).
Third, through the act of "speaking with names", place-names can be condensed "into compact form their essential moral truths" (101). "Speaking with names" is considered appropriate only under certain circumstances, generally to enable those who engage in it "to acknowledge a regrettable circumstance without explicitly judging it, to exhibit solicitude without openly proclaiming it, and to offer advice without appearing to do so" (91). Evoking images of a particular place and narrative thus replaces a more direct form of advice or criticism, with "a minimum of linguistic means" (103).
Finally, with the guidance of his Apache friend, Dudley Patterson, Basso examines the path of wisdom in Western Apache society. Patterson explains there are two mental conditions, "steadiness of mind", and "resilience of mind", which lead to a third and most desirable condition, smoothness of mind. These three conditions are not innate; therefore, one must work on one's mind in order to gain wisdom. To work on one's mind, "one must observe different places, learn their Apache place-names, and reflect on traditional narratives that underscore the virtues of wisdom" (134). A resilient mind, according to Patterson, does not "give in to panic or fall prey to spasms of anxiety or succumb to spells of crippling worry" (132). A steady mind is "unhampered by feelings of arrogance or pride, anger or vindictiveness, jealously or lust" (133). Steadiness and resilience give way to a sense of "cleared space" or "area free of obstruction", conditions necessary for smoothness of mind. Only those who continue on the trail of wisdom their whole lives come closest to having a smooth mind, and are "able to foresee disaster, fend off misfortune, and avoid explosive conflicts with other persons" (131). Thus, wisdom is intertwined with the idea of survival through the consistent and thoughtful evocation of landscape and language.
Keith Basso and the Western Apaches of Cibecue have provided readers with an insightful and provocative account of the connection between language, land, and a people's cultural history. Wisdom Sits in Places opens the door for future research on place-names by shedding light on a previously overshadowed topic in anthropological studies. Basso's dissection of certain stories and social interactions can be overwhelming and a bit dry, but his purpose is made clear when his examinations are added together with the Apache narratives. What results is a clear picture of what language and landscape mean to the Western Apaches, the functional versatility of place-names, and the importance of being aware of one's sense of place.