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India
Arabic, Persian and Urdu Inscriptions of West India
Published in Hardcover by Sandeep Prakashan (2002-05-01)
Author: Z.A. Desai
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About the Book/Author/Contents
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Review Date: 2007-08-13
About the Book :
The List is mainly based on the official epigraphical publications of the Archaeological Survey of India, like Annual Reports on Indian epigraphy, Epigraphia Indo-Moslemica and its continuation Epigraphia Indica Arabic and Persian Supplement, reports of the State archaeological departments, private publications in Persian and Urdu including periodicals and journals, not easily available to scholars and research students. It provides the most important but sadly neglected source-material for medieval history.
Apart from providing a comprehensive list of more than 2,000 inscriptions from West Indian states of Goa, Gujarat, Maharashtra and Rajasthan, its topographical list of places and nine exhaustive indexes-States, Districts, Dates, Dynasties, Kings, Persons, Findsports, Subjects and Buildings, Places, Professions, Terms, etc. mentioned in the epigraphs-will enable one to immediately lay his hand on an inscription of any place, and date, any dynasty, any king, total inscriptions from a district, a state, of a dynasty, a king, etc.
The List can truly claim to be a very useful tool for researchers in the multi-dimensional history of medieval India.

About the Author :
Dr. Ziyaud-Din Abdul-Hayy Desai (b. 18 May 1925) has had an exceptionally brilliant career throughout topping the list of successful candidates at the B.A. and M.A. examinations of the undivided Bombay University. After teaching Persian at University level for about six years, he joined the Archaeological Survey of India as the head of its Perso-Arabic epigraphy section in 1953 and finally retired as Director (Epigraphy) after a distinguished career of three decades.
Recipient of many prizes and medals including the Chancellors` Medal, Epigraphical Society of India`s Distinguished Epigraphist Award, President of India`s Award and Sir Jadu Nath Sarkar Gold Medal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, Dr. Desai has been responsible for establishing the Perso-Arabic epigraphical studies on a sound footing. During his tenure, thousands of inscriptions were copied from all over India and listed in the Annual Reports on Indian Epigraphy and hundred of them published with texts, English translations, historical notes and facsimiles in the Epigraphia Indica Arabic and Persian Supplement of which he edited twenty bulky issues.
Dr. Desai is the author of a dozen and a half works and more than 350 articles on Indo-Muslim history, art, architecture and numismatics, Indo-Persian literature, old Urdu (Gujarati language), etc. He is currently engaged in the History of Shah Jahan in the words of his court historians.

Contents :
Preface
Abbreviations and Titles of Works Quoted
Introduction

A
1. Abbasgarh 2. Adavad 3. Ahmedabad 4. Ahmednagar 5. Ajabgarh 6. Ajmer 7. Akkalkot 8. Akola 9. Akolner 10. Akot 11. Alanpur 12. Alwar 13. Amarpur 14. Ambad 15. Amber 16. Amner 17. Amod 18. Amreli 19. Anad 20. Ankai 21. Ankleshwar 22. Antur 23. Ashti (Dt.Bhir) 24. Ashti (Dt.Wardha) 25. Aurangabad 26. Ausa

B
27. Bagmandala 28. Bahroj 29. Bairat 30. Bakaliya 31. Balapur 32. Bankot 33. Barambad 34. Baran 35. Bari 36. Bari Khatu 37. Barmer 38. Basim 39. Basni 40. Bayana 41. Bet Dwarka 42. Bhadgaon 43. Bhadreshwar 44. Bhalej 45. Bhamer 46. Bharatpur 47. Bharuch (Broach) 48. Bhatasan 49. Bhavnagar 50. Bhir 51. Bhokar 52. Bhuj 53. Bodhan 54. Bombay 55. Budhel 56. Burhanpur

C
57. Cambay (Khambhat) 58. Chakan 59. Chaksu 60. Champaner 61. Chandor 62. Cheul 63. Chittorgarh

D
64. Dabhoi 65. Dabhol 66. Danda 67. Dazed 68. Dasaj 69. Daulatabad 70. Deglur 71. Dekawada 72. Dewalgaon-Raja 73. Dharur 74. Dhodap, See Machi Dhodap 75. Dholka 76. Dholpur 77. Dhrangadhra 78. Didwana 79. Dig 80. Div 81. Dive Agar 82. Dohad

E
83. Ellichpur 84. Ellora 85. Erandol 86. Etamda

F
87. Fatehkhelda 88. Fatehpur (Shaikhwati)

G
89. Gagraun 90. Galna 91. Gangapur 92. Gangwana 93. Garh (Tahangarh) 94. Gawilgarh 95. Ghoda 96. Ghogha 97. Godhra 98. Gondegaon

H
99. Halol 100. Haldarva 101. Harsol 102. Harsore 103. Himmatnagar 104. Hindaun

I
105. Indrai

J
106. Jafarabad 107. Jaipur 108. Jaisalmer 109. Jalgaon-Jamod 110. Jalna 111. Jalor 112. Jambusar 113. Jamkhed 114. Jamnagar 115. Janjira 116. Jhalwar 117. Jhor 118. Jhunjhunu 119. Jodhpur 120. Jornang 121. Junjala 122. Junagadh 123. Junnar

K
124. Kadi 125. Kagzipura 126. Kalamb 127. Kalyan 128. Kaman 129. Kamthi 130. Kamrej 131. Kandahar 132. Kapadwanj 133. Karad 134. Karanja 135. Kathodara 136. Kathoti 137. Kati 138. Khakhrechi 139. Khanapur 140. Kharakdi 141. Kharda 142. Kharwandi 143. Khed 144. Kheralu 145. Khokri 146. Khuladabad 147. Kolhapur 148. Kota 149. Kuchera 150. Kumhari 151. Kutiyana
L
152. Ladnun 153. Lakhanwada 154. Lodrova 155. Loharpura 156. Loliana 157. Lonar

M
158. Machi Dhodap 159. Madhi 160. Mahur 161. Mahuva 162. Makrana 163. Malan 164. Male 165. Malegaon 166. Maliya Miyana 167. Malkapur 168. Manchar 169. Mandal 170. Mandavgaon 171. Mandor 172. Mandvi (Dt. Kachchh) 173. Mandvi(Dt. Surat) 174. Mangalpur 175. Mangrol 176. Mangril Pir 177. Mania 178. Maulanagar 179. Mehsana 180. Merta City 181. Miraj 182. Modasa 183. Morvi 184. Mozamabad 185. Munjpur

N
186. Nagapur 187. Nagara 188. Nagaur 189. Nagpur 190. Naldurg 191. Nanded 192. Nandurbar 193. Naraina 194. Narayangadh 195. Narnala 196. Nashik 197. Nasik, See Nashik 198. Nauganwa 199. Navsari 200. Nikol 201. Nilanga 202. Nimbait 203. Niwai 204. Nizampur

O
205. Olpad 206. Osmanabad 207. Otur

P
208. Pachad 209. Paithan 210. Palanpur 211. Pali 212. Panchgawhan 213. Panhala 214. Papdi 215. Parantij 216. Parbatsar 217. Parbhani 218. Parenda 219. Parner 220. Parola 221. Partur 222. Pasnavada 223. Patan 224. Patdi 225. Patur Shaikh Babu 226. Petlad 227. Phalodi 228. Pipar City 229. Pirana 230. Pirawa 231. Pokhran 232. Poona, see Pune 233. Prabhas Patan 234. Pune 235. Purli-Baijnath 236. Pushkar

R
237. Radhanpur 238. Rahmatpur 239. Rajapur 240. Rajkot 241. Rajpuri, 242. Rajur 243. Ranpur 244. Ranthambhore 245. Raver 246. Rayania 247. Ren 248. Ritpur 249. Rohal Sharif 250. Rohankhed 251. Rupbas

S
252. Sachin 253. Sambhar 254. Sami 255. Sanchor 256. Sandhier 257. Sangamner 258. Sankheda 259. Sara 260. Sarkhej 261. Stara 262. Shahabad 263. Shahgadh 264. Shendurni 265. Shirala 266. Shirol 267. Sholapur 268. Sidhpur 269. Sir Mathura 270. Sojat 271. Sunel 272. Surat

T
273. Tadkeshwar 274. Tahangarh 275. Talaja 276. Taltam 277. Tankaria 278. Taragadh 279. Tarapur 280. Thalner 281. Thane 282. Tharad 283. Tijara 284. Toda Raisingh 285. Tondapur 286. Tordi 287. Tuljapur

U
288. Udaipur 289. Udgir 290. Una 291. Undheri (Island)

V
292. Vadnagar 293. Vadodara 294. Vaijapur 295. Vaisagarh 296. Vankaner 297. Vasavad 298. Vasrawi 299. Vatva 300. Velha Goa 301. Veluz 302. Veraval 303. Vijapur 304. Viramgam 305. Vishalgadh 306. Visnagar

W
307. Wadhwan 308. Wai 309. Walan 310. Waregaon

Y
311. Yeshvi
Index I - States
Index II - Districts
Index III - Dynasties
Index IV - Kings
Index V - Dates
Index VI - Findspots
Index VII - Subjects
Index VIII - Persons
Index IX - Buildings, Places, Professions, Terms etc.

India
Archaeology & art of India
Published in Unknown Binding by Sundeep Prakashan (1979)
Author: Bindeshwari Prasad Sinha
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About the Book/Author/Contents
Helpful Votes: 1 out of 1 total.
Review Date: 2007-09-04
About the Book :
The essays included in this book will give the readers not only some useful data on the recent archaeological finds, but also inform them about the views held or suggestions made by the author on some of the major problems facing Indian archaeologists today.

About the Author :
Bindeshwari Prasad Sinha (b. 1919) is a brilliant product of the Patna University having obtained 1st class both in B.A. (Hons.) and M.A. in History, and was recipient of University gold medal. He has been teaching in the Patna University since 1942, and has been the University Professor of ancient Indian History and Archaeology since 1959. He has presided over the Ancient Indian Section of the Indian History Congress and has been the president of the Numismatic Society of Indian and the Indian Archaeological Society.
Dr. Sinha has traveled wide. He was visiting Asian Professor to the U.S.A. and also a member of Government of India Cultural Delegation to Bulgaria and Yugoslavia. He attended sessions of International Congress of Orientalists in Parts and Canberra.

Contents :
Introduction
1. Problems of Indian Archaeology
2. Some Aspects of Pre-History and Proto-History of Ancient India
3. Some Problems of Ancient Indian Potteries
4. Neolithic Culture in the Gangetic Valley
5. Bone Tools from Chirand & Burzhom : A Comparative Study
6. The Mahabharata and Indian Archaeology
7. Excavations at Champa
8. Material Culture of the Bihar Plains : 600 B.C.-1300 A.D.
9. Archaeological Activities in Bihar
10. Buxar Terracottas
11. Crystal Human-Figure from Sonpur
12. Some Rare Antiquities from Recent Excavations in Bihar
13. Representation of Ramayanic Scenes in an Old Temple Wall at Aphsad
14. A Rare Image of Sadyojata
15. Some Reflections on Indian Sculpture (Stone or Bronze) of Buddhist Deities Trampling on Hindu Deities
16. Some Problems of Ancient Indian Numismatics
Index
Illustrations

India
Archaeology and Art of India
Published in Hardcover by Sandeep Prakashan (2004-06-15)
Author: Bhabani P. Sinha
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About the Book/Author/Contents
Helpful Votes: 0 out of 0 total.
Review Date: 2007-08-11
About the Book :
The essays included in this book will give the readers not only some useful data on the recent archaeological finds, but also inform them about the views held or suggestions made by the author on some of the major problems facing Indian archaeologists today.

About the Author :
Bindeshwari Prasad Sinha (b. 1919) is a brilliant product of the Patna University having obtained 1st class both in B.A. (Hons.) and M.A. in History, and was recipient of University gold medal. He has been teaching in the Patna University since 1942, and has been the University Professor of ancient Indian History and Archaeology since 1959. He has presided over the Ancient Indian Section of the Indian History Congress and has been the president of the Numismatic Society of Indian and the Indian Archaeological Society.
Dr. Sinha has traveled wide. He was visiting Asian Professor to the U.S.A. and also a member of Government of India Cultural Delegation to Bulgaria and Yugoslavia. He attended sessions of International Congress of Orientalists in Parts and Canberra.

Contents :
Introduction
1. Problems of Indian Archaeology
2. Some Aspects of Pre-History and Proto-History of Ancient India
3. Some Problems of Ancient Indian Potteries
4. Neolithic Culture in the Gangetic Valley
5. Bone Tools from Chirand & Burzhom : A Comparative Study
6. The Mahabharata and Indian Archaeology
7. Excavations at Champa
8. Material Culture of the Bihar Plains : 600 B.C.-1300 A.D.
9. Archaeological Activities in Bihar
10. Buxar Terracottas
11. Crystal Human-Figure from Sonpur
12. Some Rare Antiquities from Recent Excavations in Bihar
13. Representation of Ramayanic Scenes in an Old Temple Wall at Aphsad
14. A Rare Image of Sadyojata
15. Some Reflections on Indian Sculpture (Stone or Bronze) of Buddhist Deities Trampling on Hindu Deities
16. Some Problems of Ancient Indian Numismatics
Index
Illustrations

India
Archaeology in Orissa: Sites and Monuments
Published in Hardcover by Stosius Inc/Advent Books Division (1986-08)
Author: Ramesh Prasad Mohapatra
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Excellent and complete reference Book on Orissan Archaeology
Helpful Votes: 2 out of 2 total.
Review Date: 1999-09-04
Author, an eminent archaeologist of international repute from Orissa,gone a great detail in exploring the archaeological remains of Orissa.He discovered hither to unknown archaeological sites and monuments located in remotest part of Orissa.Long and detail introduction in the begining of the book enable one to introduce and understand the rich archaeological treasure in Orissa.Photographs and Glossary in the end are delightful.It's a magnificent volume on the Archaeological sites and Monuments of Orissa,also an important authoritative reference book on the subject based on pain-staking field work and study.Author surveys as many as 500 archeological sites and 5000 monuments spread all over Orissa presenting their location,period of Construction,history, and past glory to present condition in a very lucid manner.All the sites are in alphabetical order under an administrative district which enables one to locate a particular site very easily.The book is divided in two volumes.

It's a very good book for Scholars working on South Asia,India and Orissan archaeology in particular.It is also very informative for the General readers and tourists who are interested in archaeology.

India
Archaeology of Indian Musical Instruments
Published in Hardcover by Sandeep Prakashan (2004-06-15)
Author: K. Krishna Murthy
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Review Date: 2007-01-13
About the Book :
The present book is a study of the different varieties of musical instruments impeccably delineated in the early Indian plastic art. The book discusses in enormous detail, each item of the musical instruments under the classification, viz. stringed (tata), percussion (anaddha), wind (susira) and solid (ghana). The indigenous traits and the foreign impacts on the Indian musical instruments are brilliantly highlighted. To achieve this end, the sculptures of Sanchi, Bharhut, Amaravati, Gandhara, Nagarjunakonda, Mathura and the paintings of Ajanta, supplemented by the literary data and other archaeological evidences, have all been brought within the compass of the study. The coverage from second century B.C. to sixth - seventh centuries A.D. registers all trends and tendencies in sound and models of the musical instruments.

About the Author :
Prof. Dr. K.Krishna Murthy, M.A., Ph.D., D.Litt., F.R.A.S. (London), MRAI (London, MRAA (London), a distinguished archaeologist and a celebrated at historian was born on 21-6-1930 at Anatapur in Andhra Pradesh. After schooling in Municipal High School at Kurnool and collegiate education in Government Arts College, Anatapur, he took his B.A. (Hons) and M.A. from Andhra University, Waltair. A double doctor, he was awarded Ph.D. and D.Litt (Doctor of Letters) by the Nagpur University for his outstanding treatises in the field of archaeology. In recognition of his scholarly eminence, he was elected in 1972 a fellow of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland (FRAS) and a member of M.R.A.I and MRAA (London) in 1985 and member of the World Archaeology Congress, South East Asia in 1992, an honour only few Indians enjoy.
He was associated with the Archaeological Survey of India for 34 years and served it with distinction, dignity and integrity in various capacities to become Superintending Archaeologist. He is also a former professor of History and Indian Culture in Sri Sathya Sai Institute of Higher Learning, Prashanthinilayam and its first Dean Faculty of Arts for some time. A prolific writer, he has authored about thirty books and hundreds of research papers in various national and international journals of repute. His specialisation in Buddhism resulting in the publication of authentic works on art-history, archaeology, Buddhist iconography, art, architecture, religion, theology, philosophy and literature has earned him celebrity. His deputation to Sri Lanka on Indo-Sri Lanka Cultural Exchange Agreement in 1978, enriched his longing to undertake Buddhist studies in greater depth.

Contents :
Preface
Abbreviations
List of Figures
List of Illustrations
I. Introductory
II. Stringed Instruments (Tata) : Chordophones
III. Percussion Instruments (Anaddha) : Membranophones
IV. Wind Instruments (susira) : Aerophones
V. Solid Instruments (Ghana) : Idiophones
Epilogue
Bibliography
Index

India
Archaeology of South India
Published in Hardcover by Sandeep Prakashan (2004-06-15)
Author: K.S. Ramachandra
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Review Date: 2007-08-13
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This book presents a rapid survey of the results of the excavations and explorations in Tamil Nadu carried out both in the pre-and post-Independence days. Besides providing a topographical background of the area concerned, the book deals with the Stone Ages.

About the Author :
Kattalai S. Ramachandran (b. 1926) graduated from the University of Madras in History and Economics in 1947. Soon after, he joined the Archaeological Survey of India associating himself with the explorations and excavations aspects of the Survey.
For more than a quarter of a century Ramachandran has participated in almost all the major excavations conducted by the Survey viz. Sisupalgarh, Sanur, Ujjain, Lothal, Kalibangan, Purana Qila, etc. and has specialized in the Iron Age, particularly of Tamil Nadu. He has also developed a lasting interest in art and iconography.
Ramachandran has contributed more than four - score research papers of lasting interest to various journals, besides editing more than half a dozen books. His other books are : A Bibliography on Indian Megaliths : Radiocarbon Dates of Archaeological sites in India : A Bibliography of Harappan cultures of India (Jointly) and The Neolithic Cultures - an annotated bibliography (in press).

Contents :
Preface
List of Maps and Figures
List of Plates
1. The Locale
2. Stone Ages
3. Iron Age
4. Tamils Develop a Script
5. Early Historical Period
6. In Retrospect
Appendices
Bibliography
Index
Maps and Figures
Plates

India
Archaeology of the Satavahana Times
Published in Hardcover by Sandeep Prakashan (2004-06-15)
Author: C. Margabandhu
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Review Date: 2007-08-13
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The six centuries from 300 B.C-300 A.D. covered in this book presents a vast vista of the life of the people of central and western India and the Deccan up to the southeast coast from the Mauryan times through the Sunga, Kushana, Kshatrapa and Satavahana ruling dynasties. An attempt has been made to reconstruct the material culture of the times on the basis of this vast mass of published archaeological data in the excavation reports. The book has been divided into 12 chapters, beginning with a prologue and ending with an epilogue. Its various chapters deal with the general history of the period with the geographical and archaeological setting as a backdrop; town planning, cities and villages and the concomitant types of architecture, civil, military and religious; the variety of building materials and other contrivances; toilet, dress and ornaments; the games and toys, tools of artisans and agricultural and household implements and various other offensive and defensive weapons; the remains of fauna and flora as obtained from excavations; among other matters.

About the Author :
Chedarambattu Margabandhu (b. 1936) an alumni of the Madras Christian College, Tambaram took his M.A. degree in History in 1959 from the Madras University. He was awarded the Northwick and N.N. Airavatham prozes of the Madras Christian College for the best performance in B.A. (Hons.) and obtaining first rank in the University. He was awarded the Post-Graduate Diploma of the School of Archaeology, Archaeological Survey of India in 1962. The Nagpur University awarded Ph.D. degree in 1973 for his thesis "Material culture of Central and Western India and the Deccan from c. 300 B.C. - 300 A.D."
In 1962, he joined the Archaeological Survey of India and over since for the past twenty-two years, he has participated in several excavations such as at Kalibangan, Paiyampalli, Pauni, Surkotda, Bakraur (Sujata-kuti), Mathura, Karvan, Anhilvad Patan, Fatehabad, etc., besides several field explorations.
His special field of study consists of interpretation of archaeological artefacts and other excavated data belonging to the Early historic period with a bearing on the material culture of the times. He has contributed more than fort papers of intrinsic value to the various Journals and Seminars on archaeology, art, architecture and aspects of material culture and technology.
Presently he is the Superintending Archaeologist in the Archaeological Survey of India, Delhi Circle, with head quarters at New Delhi.

Contents :
Preface
List of Figures
Lit of Plates
Abbreviations
Map
1. Prologue
2. Geographical and Archaeological Setting
3. Architecture
4. Trade, Transport and Exchange
5. Art and Religion
6. Domestic Equipment
7. Toilet, Dress and Ornaments
8. Games and Toys
9. Tools, Implements and Weapons
10. Technology
11. Fauna and Flora
12. Epilogue
Appendices
Bibliography
Index
Figures
Plates

India
Architecture and Art of the Deccan Sultanates (The New Cambridge History of India)
Published in Hardcover by Cambridge University Press (1999-06-28)
Authors: George Michell and Mark Zebrowski
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an outstanding survey of a neglected area in the art world
Helpful Votes: 3 out of 4 total.
Review Date: 1999-10-21
This scholarly work covers a long neglected area in the art world. Southern India and the contribution of Islamic art to this region has had insufficient attention over the years. Here we have renowned experts surveying the area with great skill. A book that will give great joy and value to scholars and the general reader alike.

India
Arise Arjuna: Hinduism and the modern world
Published in Unknown Binding by Voice of India (1995)
Author: David Frawley
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A must-read for everyone interested in Hinduism
Helpful Votes: 8 out of 11 total.
Review Date: 1999-12-16
Arise arjuna is an extremely well written book.I use the phrase well written not just because of the accuracy of the facts,but also for the in-depth understanding the author shows about the economic and political factors prevalent in India. I have read many books on various religion and a number of books on Hinduism.Arise arjuna impressed me because it looks at religion taking into consideration the social,economic and political equations.As a resident of India and a practicing Hindu,the book did not hold any surprises for me,but i would recommend it to any person who wants to learn more about India and Hinduism,along with the current scenario of Hinduism in the modern world.

India
Aristotle's Poetics and Its Modern Relevance
Published in Hardcover by Harman Publishing House,India (1988-12-31)
Author: S.L. Paul
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Tragedy Teaches Us Something About Life
Helpful Votes: 3 out of 3 total.
Review Date: 2008-05-09
I read these works for a graduate seminar on Aristotle.
Poetry appeals to human passions and emotions. Powerful beautiful language and metaphor really appeal to emotion. This idea really disturbed Plato, who takes on Homer in the Republic. Plato thought that early Greek poetry portrays a dark world; humans are checked by negative limits like death. Tragedy has in it a character of high status brought down through no fault of his own. Plato says this is unjust. Republic is about ethical life and justice. It starts with the premises that might makes right and then moves onto the idea much like modern religions that justice comes in the afterlife. Plato hates the idea that in tragedy bad things can happen to good people. He wanted to ban tragedy because he found it demoralizing.

Aristotle's Poetics is a defense against Plato's appeal to ban tragedy. Tragedy was very popular in Greek world so Aristotle asks can it be wrong to ban it? Yes, it is wrong thus he decides to study it. Plato says Poetry is not a technç because the poets are divinely inspired. Aristotle disagrees Poetics is a handbook for playwrights. Mimçsis= "representation or imitation." Plato uses it in speaking of painting, thus art is imitation. Another meaning is to mimic, like actors mimicking another person. Plato and Aristotle use it to mean psychological identification like how we get absorbed in a movie as if the action were real, eliciting emotions from us. We suspend reality for a while. Aristotle says this is natural in humans; we do this as children, we mimic. If imitation is important for humans then tragic poetry is worthwhile for Aristotle to study.

Definition of tragedy- "Through pity and fear it achieves purification from such feelings. This is a famous controversial line. Katharsis= "pity and fear" thus the purpose of tragedy is to purge katharsis. Katharsis can also mean purification or clean. There is a debate if it means clarification, through which we can come to understand katharsis. Aristotle thinks tragedy teaches us something about life. Tragedy is an elaboration on Aristotle's idea that good or virtuous people sometimes get unlucky and in the end, they get screwed. Tragedy shows this so we can learn to get by when life screws us. The whole point of tragedy is action over character. Action is the full story of the poem like the Iliad. Character is only part of the action.
Aristotle distinguishes between poetry and history. Poetry is concerned with universals, history is concerned with particulars.

I recommend Aristotle's works to anyone interested in obtaining a classical education, and those interested in philosophy. Aristotle is one of the most important philosophers and the standard that all others must be judged by.


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